A. THINK ABOUT YOUR OPINION ABOUT THE USE OF PLASTIC BAGS FOR MOST PURPOSES. ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS.
1. Why do you think this way? Have you ever read any scientific studies on environmental impact of different types of "carry bags?"
I have never read any studies on the environmental impact of plastic bags. As far as my personal opinion of plastic bag use, I think that it would be better if we didn't use plastic bags as much or at all. I am the first to admit that I use them because of their availability. However, I do not have a preference one way or the other for them. If paper is all that is available, I wouldn't miss plastic bags.
2. Does your thinking mostly reflect that of most of the people in your circle of friends and family?
I think that most of my friends and family thinking similarly to me. I know of a few people that always bring their own personal bags while shopping, but many do what I do and keep their plastic bags to reuse in some other way.
3. In what type of bag do you usually carry your merchandise home? Why?
If I am being honest, it is almost always plastic. Simply because that is what a majority of stores offer. But, I do think that paper or cloth would absolutely be better.
B. READ THE ARTICLES UNDER THE "ARTICLES IN FAVOR OF BAN ON PLASTIC BAGS" HEADING. DO FURTHER RESEARCH, If YOU ARE INTERESTED. IF YOU WRITE USING OTHER SOURCES, REMEMBER TO CITE THEM.
1. Summarize at least three arguments (three total) made in these sources in support of banning plastic bags in most circumstances.
a. It costs people more money to use "free" plastic bags than to use other non-plastic bags. This is because the cost to clean up after plastic bags have been used is extremely high. Plastic bags jam up recycling machinery, which then cost money to be fixed, and are expensive to remove from the environment.
b. Plastic bags are also incredibly bad for the environment. They break down in the oceans and sea turtles can mistake them for jelly fish and try to consume them.
c. Plastic bags do not have to be utilized. With so many alternatives, such as paper bags and cloth bags, they are really more for convenience.
2. Does this information reinforce or contradict your opinion? How?
I think it reinforces it. I know that plastic bags are bad for the environment and costly to clean the environment as well. However, I did not know that they were costly to recycle too.
3. How is the reasoning supported scientifically? Give two examples?
a) The first article states that Californians pay an estimated 428 million per year on clean up litter in their water. Between 8%-25% of that is just for cleaning up plastic bags.
b) The first article also states that 267 species have been negatively affected because of plastic bag use.
4. List two exceptions to the plastic ban in Austin.
a) Single use plastic bags are allowed for prepared foods were moisture damage can occur.
b) Bags used for laundry, dry cleaning, door-hanger and newspapers.
C. READ THE ARTICLES UNDER THE "ARTICLES AGAINST BAN ON PLASTIC BAGS" HEADING. DO FURTHER RESEARCH, IF YOUARE INTERESTED. IF YOU WRITE USING OTHER SOURCES, REMEMBER TO CITE THEM.
1. Summarize at least five arguments (five total) made in these sources in support of "banning the ban" in most circumstances.
a) Plastic bags have a much lower carbon footprint if reusable bags are not actually reused.
b) Paper bags require more water consumption and contribute to declining forests.
c) Paper bags contribute to higher green house gases than plastic bags.
d) There is a movement toward the use of alternative plastic. These bags are biodegradable and compostable, unlike their traditional plastic counterparts.
e) To balance out the impact of a lightweight plastic bag, a personal would need to use their reusable cotton bag daily for one year or use their paper bags at least three times before disposing of it.
2. How is the reasoning supported scientifically? Give two examples.
a) The Scottish government provided a two years long study on plastic bag use. The report shows the numerical data of plastic bags vs paper bags.
b) A study from "ULS" concluded that plastic bags consume 71% less energy to generate than paper bags.
3. Explain how this information reinforces or contradict your opinion/view. Give an example.
Holy cow! I was kind of surprised to find this information. I initially thought that their was overwhelming evidence that paper or reusable bags were better than plastic bags. However, I can see the argument for plastic. The difference in green house gas emission was a surprising fact to learn.
D. READ OR SKIM THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PAPER. BE SURE TO READ THE SUMMARY AND STUDY FIGURES 5.3 AND 5.6.
1) Summarize six findings of the United Kindom Environmental Agency Publication.
a) Reusing bags as many times as possible is the best practice for helping the environment.
b) Cloth bags contribute to global warming more than plastic bags.
c) Recycling and composting only contribute a negligible amount to reducing global warming.
d) How a bag is produced effects the resources used and impact on the environment.
e) Reusing plastic bags as bin liners is more beneficial than recycling plastic bags.
f) "Transport, secondary packaging and end-of-life management generally have a minimal influence on their performance" regarding the environmental impact of carrier bags.
2. Site three items that surprised you.
a) That reusing bags as garbage liners is more beneficial than recycling them.
b) That recycling and composting do not contribute that much to global warming - I am disappointed in that.
c) Cloth bags are worse for global warming than plastic - still very surprised by this!
E. REVISIT ALL ABOUT BAGS, BAGS AROUND THE WORLD.
1. In your own words, state four countries' (besides US) bag usage.
a) Belgium - Belgium taxes all of their plastic bags, plastic films, aluminum foil and disposable cutlery. All revenue is used for recycling.
b) Ireland - Ireland taxed all of their plastic bags in 2002. This reduced the number of bags used by a whopping 94%! The tax has increased twice since. However there is a catch. Because citizens began using paper bags they also needed to by "kitchen catchers". And this increased the amount of plastic in the waste system.
c) Spain - Spain imposed a tax on plastic bags to reduce their deficit in 2010 and was increased again in 2012.
d) Taiwan - In 2001 Taiwan enforced a ban on plastic bags in food service. However, the ban backfired, because it created an increase in paper waste which required more trucks to dispose of it. This increased green house gasses and created "a mountain of waste". Also, consumer were unhappy with the paper products so the ban was rescinded in 2006.
Sunday, May 3, 2015
Sunday, April 26, 2015
COMPARING HOMINID SKULLS
Sorry, my computer was all over the place trying to get this information up! : ~)
Monday, April 13, 2015
GENETICS AND INHERITANCE LAB - PART 2
1. For each of the diploid genotypes presented below, determine the genetic make up for all of the possible gametes that would result through the process of meiosis. Remember, each egg or sperm must have one of each other. That letter can be upper or lower case.
a. Rr = RR, Rr, Rr, rr
b. RrYy = RY, Yr, Ry, yr
c. rrYy = Yr, Yr, yr, yr
d. RrYY = RY, RY, Yr, Yr
2. For each of the following, state whether the genotype of a diploid or haploid cell is represented.
a. D = haploid
b. GG = diploid
c. P = haploid
d. ee = diploid
3. Yellow guinea pigs crossed with white ones always produce cream colored offspring. Two cream colored guinea pigs when crossed produced yellow, cream and white offspring in the ratio of 1 yellow: 2 cream: 1 white. Explain how are these colors inherited. No calculations needed! Name the type of inheritance this represents.
A cream colored guinea pig has the inherited alleles of one yellow parent and one white parent which makes it YW. When two cream colored guinea pigs cross it is then YW, YW. This produces one yellow (YY), two creams (YW) and one white (WW). This type of inheritance is called incomplete dominance because the cream color is the "intermediate" between yellow and white, with neither being dominant.
4. In sheep white is due to a dominant gene (B), black to its recessive allele (b). A white ewe mated to a white ram produces a black lamb. What are the genotypes of the parents? You might need to construct Punnet squares experimenting with different crosses to come up with this answer. Name the type of inheritance this represents.
The genotypes of the parents must be Bb for each sheep. With one dominant white gene and one recessive black gene. This would have a 1/4 chance of producing a black sheep, by getting two recessive genes (bb). This type of inheritance is called dominant-recessive inheritance.
5. In peas, yellow color (G) is dominant to green color (g). A heterozygous yellow is crossed with a green. What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? Name the type of inheritance this represents.
This would result in Gg, gg, Gg, gg. So one half is Gg (yellow) and one half is gg (green). This is an example of dominant-recessive inheritance.
6. White color (Y) is dominant to yellow color (y) in squash. A heterozygous white fruit plant is crossed with a yellow fruit plant. What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? What is this type of inheritance called?
Half will be Yy (white) and half will be yy (yellow). This type of inheritance is called dominant-recessive.
7. In certain flowers, a cross between homozygous red and a homozygous white will always result in a pink flower. A cross is made between two pink flowers. What is the predicted phenotype ratio of the colors red, pink and white appearing in the offspring? What is this type of inheritance called?
The phonotype ratio will be one white, two pink, and one red. This type of inheritance is called incomplete dominance.
8. In humans, the condition for normal blood clotting dominates the condition for non-clotting or hemophilia. Both alleles are lined to the X chromosome. A male hemophiliac marries a woman who is a carrier for this condition. In this respect, a carrier is a woman who has an allele for normal blood clotting and an allele for hemophilia. What are the chances that if they have a male child he will be normal for blood clotting? What is this type of inheritance called?
The child will have a 50% chance of inheriting hemophilia. This is called dominant-recessive inheritance.
9. A person with an allele for type A blood and type O blood marries someone with an allele for type B blood and type O blood. List the types of offspring they cold have and the probability for each blood type in the offspring. (A allele = 1^A, B allele = 1^B, O allele = i) What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? What is the type of inheritance called?
The offspring could be A, B, AB or O blood type. The probability of each type of blood is 25% A, 25% B, 25%AB, and 25% O. This type of inheritance is called codominance.
10. Skin color in humans becomes darker by the number of dominant alleles; AABBCC have the darkest skin and aabbcc have the lights skin. Place these genotypes in sequence according to the color of skin expected for each. Place the darkest skin first. What is this type of inheritance called?
AaBBCC
AaBBCc
AaBbCc
AAbbcc
aabbcc
This type of inheritance is called polygenic inheritance.
a. Rr = RR, Rr, Rr, rr
b. RrYy = RY, Yr, Ry, yr
c. rrYy = Yr, Yr, yr, yr
d. RrYY = RY, RY, Yr, Yr
2. For each of the following, state whether the genotype of a diploid or haploid cell is represented.
a. D = haploid
b. GG = diploid
c. P = haploid
d. ee = diploid
3. Yellow guinea pigs crossed with white ones always produce cream colored offspring. Two cream colored guinea pigs when crossed produced yellow, cream and white offspring in the ratio of 1 yellow: 2 cream: 1 white. Explain how are these colors inherited. No calculations needed! Name the type of inheritance this represents.
A cream colored guinea pig has the inherited alleles of one yellow parent and one white parent which makes it YW. When two cream colored guinea pigs cross it is then YW, YW. This produces one yellow (YY), two creams (YW) and one white (WW). This type of inheritance is called incomplete dominance because the cream color is the "intermediate" between yellow and white, with neither being dominant.
4. In sheep white is due to a dominant gene (B), black to its recessive allele (b). A white ewe mated to a white ram produces a black lamb. What are the genotypes of the parents? You might need to construct Punnet squares experimenting with different crosses to come up with this answer. Name the type of inheritance this represents.
The genotypes of the parents must be Bb for each sheep. With one dominant white gene and one recessive black gene. This would have a 1/4 chance of producing a black sheep, by getting two recessive genes (bb). This type of inheritance is called dominant-recessive inheritance.
5. In peas, yellow color (G) is dominant to green color (g). A heterozygous yellow is crossed with a green. What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? Name the type of inheritance this represents.
This would result in Gg, gg, Gg, gg. So one half is Gg (yellow) and one half is gg (green). This is an example of dominant-recessive inheritance.
6. White color (Y) is dominant to yellow color (y) in squash. A heterozygous white fruit plant is crossed with a yellow fruit plant. What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? What is this type of inheritance called?
Half will be Yy (white) and half will be yy (yellow). This type of inheritance is called dominant-recessive.
7. In certain flowers, a cross between homozygous red and a homozygous white will always result in a pink flower. A cross is made between two pink flowers. What is the predicted phenotype ratio of the colors red, pink and white appearing in the offspring? What is this type of inheritance called?
The phonotype ratio will be one white, two pink, and one red. This type of inheritance is called incomplete dominance.
8. In humans, the condition for normal blood clotting dominates the condition for non-clotting or hemophilia. Both alleles are lined to the X chromosome. A male hemophiliac marries a woman who is a carrier for this condition. In this respect, a carrier is a woman who has an allele for normal blood clotting and an allele for hemophilia. What are the chances that if they have a male child he will be normal for blood clotting? What is this type of inheritance called?
The child will have a 50% chance of inheriting hemophilia. This is called dominant-recessive inheritance.
9. A person with an allele for type A blood and type O blood marries someone with an allele for type B blood and type O blood. List the types of offspring they cold have and the probability for each blood type in the offspring. (A allele = 1^A, B allele = 1^B, O allele = i) What is the expected phenotype ratio of the offspring? What is the type of inheritance called?
The offspring could be A, B, AB or O blood type. The probability of each type of blood is 25% A, 25% B, 25%AB, and 25% O. This type of inheritance is called codominance.
10. Skin color in humans becomes darker by the number of dominant alleles; AABBCC have the darkest skin and aabbcc have the lights skin. Place these genotypes in sequence according to the color of skin expected for each. Place the darkest skin first. What is this type of inheritance called?
AaBBCC
AaBBCc
AaBbCc
AAbbcc
aabbcc
This type of inheritance is called polygenic inheritance.
Sunday, April 12, 2015
GENETICS AND INHERITANCE LAB - PART 1
| Allele(s) from Mother | Allele(s) from Father | Genotype | Phenotype | |||
| Sex of child: | XX | XX | Girl | |||
| Face shape | r | r | rr | square | ||
| Chin Shape (I) | v | V | Vv | very prominent | ||
| Chin Shape (II) | R | r | Rr | round | ||
| Cleft chin | A | A | AA | absent | ||
| Skin color | AbCd | AbCd | AAbbCCdd | med brown | ||
| Hair type | c | c | cc | straight | ||
| Widow’s Peak | W | W | WW | present | ||
| Eyebrows (I) | B | b | Bb | bushy | ||
| Eyebrows (II) | N | n | Nn | not connected | ||
| Eyebrow color | h | H | Hh | same as hair | ||
| Eyes distance apart | E | e | Ee | Average distance | ||
| Eyes size | E | e | Ee | medium | ||
| Eyes shape | A | a | Aa | almond | ||
| Eyes slant | H | H | HH | horizontal | ||
| Eyelashes | L | l | Ll | long | ||
| Eye color | aBC | abC | aaBbCC | hazel | ||
| Mouth size | m | m | mm | narrow | ||
| Lips | l | L | Ll | thick | ||
| Protruding lower lip | h | h | hh | absent | ||
| Dimples | d | D | Dd | present | ||
| Nose size | n | n | nn | small | ||
| Nose shape | r | r | rr | pointed | ||
| Nostril shape | R | R | RR | rounded | ||
| Earlobe Attachment | F | f | Ff | free | ||
| Freckles on checks | F | f | Ff | freckles on cheeks | ||
| Hair color | aBCd | abCD | aaBbCCDd | dark blonde | ||
|
Sunday, April 5, 2015
DNA LAB - PART 2
DNA Technologies
The DNA technology I am most excited about and interested in is gene therapy. This field has a lot going on and has the potential to improve or save many lives. Gene therapy is putting certain human genes directly into cells in an attempt to change the cells behavior. By doing this, the cell would no longer facilitate or create a disease. This may stop cells from differentiating into tumors other or disease processes. Part of the problem with gene therapy is isolating the gene that causes these diseases, then being able to target enough cells to make a difference. If the gene is introduced to only a small amount of cells, than it may not be enough to change the environment. However, if scientist's can find a way to seek out the specific cells that cause the disease and infiltrate a majority of them, it could change the way the cell behaves. Possibly forever. Another issue is that even if gene therapy does work in certain individuals, it is not guaranteed to work in their off spring.
The DNA technology I am most excited about and interested in is gene therapy. This field has a lot going on and has the potential to improve or save many lives. Gene therapy is putting certain human genes directly into cells in an attempt to change the cells behavior. By doing this, the cell would no longer facilitate or create a disease. This may stop cells from differentiating into tumors other or disease processes. Part of the problem with gene therapy is isolating the gene that causes these diseases, then being able to target enough cells to make a difference. If the gene is introduced to only a small amount of cells, than it may not be enough to change the environment. However, if scientist's can find a way to seek out the specific cells that cause the disease and infiltrate a majority of them, it could change the way the cell behaves. Possibly forever. Another issue is that even if gene therapy does work in certain individuals, it is not guaranteed to work in their off spring.
 |
| Injection of genes into human cell. (No directly, of course) |
DNA LAB - PART 1
My Personal Chromosome #9:
DDX58: Dead
This gene helps with RNA recognition and regulating immune responses. It encodes a protein with RNA Dead-box protein.
NOTCH1: Notch 1
A transmembrane protein that aids in developmental process through controlling the fate of what a cell is going to do. Signals cells that are right next to each other and regulates their interactions.
ENG: Endoglin
Encodes for a transmembrane protein that is a vascular endothelium (interior tissue of vessels) glycoprotein (carbohydrate and protein). Part of the "transforming growth factor beta receptor complex" (form of cell to cell communication). Mutations can cause hereditary diseases such as Osler-Rendu-Weber Syndrome 1, preeclampsia in pregnant women and cancer.
RXRA: Retinoid X Receptor Alpha
Help mediate effects of retinoids (Vitamin A compounds). Promotes the binding of molecules in order to transcribe sequences for target genes.
ADAMTS13: Adametallopeptidase with Thrombospondin Type 1
Encodes an enzyme that leads to von Willebrand Factor (protein that stops blood loss). Defects in the gene cause blood clots to form in blood vessels.
SYK: Spleen Tyrosine Kinase
Expressed in hematopoietic cells (blood producing). Pair immunoreceptors with certain biological events and mediate a cellular response. Possibly a tumor suppressor and may play a role in tissue growth.
ABO: ABO Blood Group
Encodes proteins for the different blood groups, A, B and O. Blood types are dependent on which type of allele (alternative form of a gene) is present.
TLR4: Toll-like Receptor 4
Plays a very definitive role in recognizing pathogens (diseases) and starting an immune response. Once they recognize a certain pathogen they aid in the production of cytokines (promotes immunity cells).
My favorite gene is TLR4, Toll-like Receptor 4. I chose this gene because it actively plays a role in immune response and fighting against disease. The gene is able to recognize a pathogen and signal specific cells to take care of it. I find it interesting because it aids in keeping our bodies healthy, often before we ever know the pathogen exists in our bodies.
CITATIONS
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. DNA Interactive. DNA Learning Center, 2003.
Web. April 5, 2015.
Johnson, Michael D. Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues. Illinois: Pearson
Education, Inc. 2014. Print.
DDX58: Dead
This gene helps with RNA recognition and regulating immune responses. It encodes a protein with RNA Dead-box protein.
NOTCH1: Notch 1
A transmembrane protein that aids in developmental process through controlling the fate of what a cell is going to do. Signals cells that are right next to each other and regulates their interactions.
ENG: Endoglin
Encodes for a transmembrane protein that is a vascular endothelium (interior tissue of vessels) glycoprotein (carbohydrate and protein). Part of the "transforming growth factor beta receptor complex" (form of cell to cell communication). Mutations can cause hereditary diseases such as Osler-Rendu-Weber Syndrome 1, preeclampsia in pregnant women and cancer.
RXRA: Retinoid X Receptor Alpha
Help mediate effects of retinoids (Vitamin A compounds). Promotes the binding of molecules in order to transcribe sequences for target genes.
ADAMTS13: Adametallopeptidase with Thrombospondin Type 1
Encodes an enzyme that leads to von Willebrand Factor (protein that stops blood loss). Defects in the gene cause blood clots to form in blood vessels.
SYK: Spleen Tyrosine Kinase
Expressed in hematopoietic cells (blood producing). Pair immunoreceptors with certain biological events and mediate a cellular response. Possibly a tumor suppressor and may play a role in tissue growth.
ABO: ABO Blood Group
Encodes proteins for the different blood groups, A, B and O. Blood types are dependent on which type of allele (alternative form of a gene) is present.
TLR4: Toll-like Receptor 4
Plays a very definitive role in recognizing pathogens (diseases) and starting an immune response. Once they recognize a certain pathogen they aid in the production of cytokines (promotes immunity cells).
My favorite gene is TLR4, Toll-like Receptor 4. I chose this gene because it actively plays a role in immune response and fighting against disease. The gene is able to recognize a pathogen and signal specific cells to take care of it. I find it interesting because it aids in keeping our bodies healthy, often before we ever know the pathogen exists in our bodies.
CITATIONS
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. DNA Interactive. DNA Learning Center, 2003.
Web. April 5, 2015.
Johnson, Michael D. Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues. Illinois: Pearson
Education, Inc. 2014. Print.
Sunday, March 29, 2015
THE JOURNEY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM LAB
PART 1: The Journey of the Digestive System
This video totally grossed my kids out, but I loved it! Really cool perspective of the digestion journey!
PART 2: Salivary Amylase and Other Digestive Enzymes
It took approximately 5.25 seconds to start tasting sweet - I think it was pretty fast. I used a bit of bread since I didn't have salt free crackers.
Complete the chart.
Enzyme Producing Organ Site of Action Substrate(s)
Sal. Amy. Salivary Glands Mouth Polysaccharides
Trypsin Pancreas Small Intestine Proteins
Lipase Pancreas Small Intestine Triglycerides
Pepsin Stomach Stomach Proteins
Questions.
1. Name the end molecules of digestion for each of the following types of food. In other words, what smaller pieces is each hydrolyzed into to be made available to the body?
a. Proteins: Break down into amino acids.
b. Carbohydrates: Break down into monosaccharides.
c. Fats: Break down into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
2. Describe the process by which fats enter the blood.
Fat (or lipids) are digested by pancreatic and intestinal lipase's which break down the fat into fatty acids and monoglycerides. The non-polar molecules are dissolved into micelles that are polar on the outside and non-polar on the inside. This makes the molecules transportable to the the outside of a mucosal cell where it can be absorbed. After it has reached the inside of the cell, both molecules come together again and form a triglyceride. The triglycerides cluster together and are covered in proteins that make them water soluble. At this point they are now called chylomicrons. The chylomicrons now exit the cell via exocytosis and enter lacteals of the lymph vessels to be carried into blood vessels.
Part 3: Food Tracker
The option I chose was My Weight Manager. This one was the scariest for me, but I knew it would be beneficial and I was interested in what it was going to tell me. After entering in my age, gender, height, weight and physical activity, the manager gave me my results. It said that in order to reach my goal weight I needed to get at least 150 minutes of exercise a week and consume up to 1800 calories a day. I need to eat 6 oz of grans, 2 1/2 cups of veggies, 1 1/2 cups of fruit, 3 cups of dairy and 5 oz of protein. I actually like having this information and signed up on the website to see if I can get more out of it. Having solid numbers to go with helps me with creating attainable goals instead of winging it and hoping for the best!
Friday, March 6, 2015
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND NEURON MODELING
PART 1: MODELING NEURONS
The axon terminal is at the end of the dendrites (forgot to label it).
The axon terminal is at the end of the dendrites on this one too!
Yes, you guessed it, the axon terminal is at the end of the dendrites!
CITATIONS:
Johnson, Michael D. (2014). Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc.
Jabr, Ferris (2012, May 16). Know Your Neurons: How to Classify Different Types of Neurons in the Brain's Forest [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.blogs.scientificamerican.com
What is a good idea to help remember the directions of afferent and efferent neurons sent messages to or from the central nervous system?
The way I remember the direction afferent and efferent neurons travel is by reminding myself that Efferent neurons are the effectors. They are the signals that tell the body what actions to take which causes an effect. By remembering that efferent means effect, I then know that Afferent does the opposite and sends information to the CNS.
Items used: Dum-dum lollipop, cut in half for the nucleus. Colored paper for the nucleolus. Green paperclip bent back and forth for the Golgi. Small bits of rubber band for the Nissl Bodies. Thick blue rubberband for the cytoskeleton. Purple ribbon for the myelin sheath. Paper, colored pencils and pens.
The axon terminal is at the end of the dendrites (forgot to label it).
 |
| Unipolar Neuron |
 |
| Bipolar Neuron |
 |
| Multipolar Neuron |
CITATIONS:
Johnson, Michael D. (2014). Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc.
Jabr, Ferris (2012, May 16). Know Your Neurons: How to Classify Different Types of Neurons in the Brain's Forest [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.blogs.scientificamerican.com
What is a good idea to help remember the directions of afferent and efferent neurons sent messages to or from the central nervous system?
The way I remember the direction afferent and efferent neurons travel is by reminding myself that Efferent neurons are the effectors. They are the signals that tell the body what actions to take which causes an effect. By remembering that efferent means effect, I then know that Afferent does the opposite and sends information to the CNS.
Items used: Dum-dum lollipop, cut in half for the nucleus. Colored paper for the nucleolus. Green paperclip bent back and forth for the Golgi. Small bits of rubber band for the Nissl Bodies. Thick blue rubberband for the cytoskeleton. Purple ribbon for the myelin sheath. Paper, colored pencils and pens.
Sunday, March 1, 2015
BLOOD AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LAB
PART 1. Blood
Erythrocytes and Leukocytes
1.
2.
3. Leukocytes and their functions.
Basophils: Contains histamines that cause body tissues to swell and eventually repair injuries.
Eosinophils: Destroys large parasites by using digestive enzymes. Also releases chemicals to temper allergic reactions in the body.
Lymphocytes: B lymphocytes help make antibodies that defend the body against disease and infection. T lymphocytes destroy more specific threats such as cancer cells.
Monocytes: Often seen with chronic infections, monocytes differentiate into macrophages that "eat" dead tissue and foreign invaders.
Neutrophils: First step in immunity. Neutrophils fight bacteria and fungi by surrounding and "eating" the foreign invaders.
Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle Cell Anemia came about through natural selection. In the body's attempt to fight the malaria, it created a gene that helped aid in resisting the infectious disease. However, the side affect from the mutated gene was Sickle Cell Anemia.
Blood Typing
2. a. The blood typing game took a minute to understand so I didn't get it right away. But after a few minutes I was able to save all the patients. : )
b. I did great on the transfusion part! That part was a bit easier to understand once I figured out the blood typing part.
3. If a blood antigen received the wrong type such as A+ to B-, the blood would clump together and cause arteries and veins to become blocked, eventually damaging organs.
4. An antigen is a cell protein that is "non-self" on the blood and recognizes foreign invaders. Antibodies are proteins the body creates as an immunity defense against foreign invaders.
5. When an RH negative woman carries her first child that is RH positive, there is no reaction. However the body has developed antibodies to protect itself from future dealing with the foreign blood. If a woman becomes pregnant again and the fetus is also RH positive the body will recognize the RH positive fetus as foreign and send an immune response to destroy the offending invader.
PART 2. Lymphatic System
Explain how the lymphatic system is physiologically and anatomically related to the cardiovascular system.
The tonsils are related to the cardiovascular system because they are highly vascular and they have lymphocytes that filter out organisms that come in through the mouth and nose.
PART 3. Nonspecific Body Defenses
1. Name and explain three ways the integumentary system provides the first line of defense.
The skin provides a keratin barrier against bacteria and other harmful microbes and viruses preventing them from reaching the blood and internal organs. Hair, an accessory organ of the integumentary system offers protection and insulates from the cold. The skin also produces melanin that absorbs UV light from the sun that can damage cells underneath.
2. Explain the protective role of cilia. From what primary tissue type do cilia arise?
Cilia moves debris away from the body and carries it away so that it will not be absorbed. Cilia arises from epithelial tissue.
3. Define and sketch phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis is the cells ability to engulf foreign invaders and destroy it using lysosomes that live inside the cell.
4. Name and sketch two cell types that perform phagocytosis.
5. Describe the process involved in the inflammatory response. Include all chemicals and cell types.
Erythrocytes and Leukocytes
1.
 |
| Erythrocyte |
 |
| Leukocyte |
 |
| Leukocyte |
Basophils: Contains histamines that cause body tissues to swell and eventually repair injuries.
Eosinophils: Destroys large parasites by using digestive enzymes. Also releases chemicals to temper allergic reactions in the body.
Lymphocytes: B lymphocytes help make antibodies that defend the body against disease and infection. T lymphocytes destroy more specific threats such as cancer cells.
Monocytes: Often seen with chronic infections, monocytes differentiate into macrophages that "eat" dead tissue and foreign invaders.
Neutrophils: First step in immunity. Neutrophils fight bacteria and fungi by surrounding and "eating" the foreign invaders.
Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle Cell Anemia came about through natural selection. In the body's attempt to fight the malaria, it created a gene that helped aid in resisting the infectious disease. However, the side affect from the mutated gene was Sickle Cell Anemia.
Blood Typing
2. a. The blood typing game took a minute to understand so I didn't get it right away. But after a few minutes I was able to save all the patients. : )
b. I did great on the transfusion part! That part was a bit easier to understand once I figured out the blood typing part.
3. If a blood antigen received the wrong type such as A+ to B-, the blood would clump together and cause arteries and veins to become blocked, eventually damaging organs.
4. An antigen is a cell protein that is "non-self" on the blood and recognizes foreign invaders. Antibodies are proteins the body creates as an immunity defense against foreign invaders.
5. When an RH negative woman carries her first child that is RH positive, there is no reaction. However the body has developed antibodies to protect itself from future dealing with the foreign blood. If a woman becomes pregnant again and the fetus is also RH positive the body will recognize the RH positive fetus as foreign and send an immune response to destroy the offending invader.
PART 2. Lymphatic System
 |
| Tonsil |
The tonsils are related to the cardiovascular system because they are highly vascular and they have lymphocytes that filter out organisms that come in through the mouth and nose.
PART 3. Nonspecific Body Defenses
1. Name and explain three ways the integumentary system provides the first line of defense.
The skin provides a keratin barrier against bacteria and other harmful microbes and viruses preventing them from reaching the blood and internal organs. Hair, an accessory organ of the integumentary system offers protection and insulates from the cold. The skin also produces melanin that absorbs UV light from the sun that can damage cells underneath.
2. Explain the protective role of cilia. From what primary tissue type do cilia arise?
Cilia moves debris away from the body and carries it away so that it will not be absorbed. Cilia arises from epithelial tissue.
3. Define and sketch phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis is the cells ability to engulf foreign invaders and destroy it using lysosomes that live inside the cell.
 |
| Phagocytosis |
 |
| Neutrophil |
 |
| Eosinophil |
Once a tissue is damaged, the damaged cells release a chemical that triggers mast cells to release histamine. The histamine allows the vessels surrounding the damaged tissue to dilate. Meanwhile, basophils are also releasing histamines. The enlargement of the vessels allows phagocytes to enter the interstitial fluid and begin to destroy the foreign invaders and damaged cells. There is also an increase in blood to the area that raises the temperature in the area, increases phagocytosis. The interstitial fluid is leaking in as well, diluting the foreign substances and delivers clotting proteins. The clotting proteins form a fibrin mesh over the damaged area where healthy tissue is then allowed to begin forming anew.
Sunday, February 22, 2015
Chicken Wing Dissection Lab
1. Put on gloves. Thoroughly rinse and dry chicken leg or wing. Place it on a plate or tray.
2. Examine the outside skin tissue. Record at least 4 observations of the chicken skin.
The skin was bumpy, with a pinkish/white coloring. It was pretty thick and very loose.
3. Using scissors, knife, and tweezers, work slowly and carefully to cut the skin and peel it away
from the muscle below. Notice the clear connective tissue that holds the skin to the muscles.
The probe may be the most effective tool. As you peel off the skin, you may need to cut away
some of the connective tissue.
4. Record at least 4 observations of connective tissue.
The connective tissue was clear, stretchy, very thin and very shiny. It also adhered to the skin very
well.
5.
6. What specific type of connective tissue is this?
This is loose connective tissue.
7. Observe the yellowish clumps of fat tissue found outside the skin. Record at least 2
observations of the fat.
Fat was clumped together in little tiny pockets and was surrounded by loose connective tissue
as well.
8. What is the biological term for the type of cells that store fat.
Adipocytes
9. Name at least 2 functions of this fat.
Fat protects and insulates.
10. Observe bundles of muscle tissue surrounding bones. Separate the bundles of muscle by
separating them out with your fingers. Begin by inserting your thumb into the muscle by
pushing though the connective tissue covering the muscle. It will give way at the natural
separations between the muscle bundles.
11. Viewing through a magnifying too, if you have one, (but still do if you don't) describe 2
characteristics of the arrangement of the muscle bundles as you see them here.
All of the muscle fibers are going in the same direction and all the fibers were stacked in a layered
fashion.
12. Using your textbook or another reference, sketch a representation of the muscles starting
with the muscle cell and ending with the whole muscle. Cite your source!
Johnson, Michael D. (2014). Human Biology Concepts and Current Issues (7th edition).
Glenview, Il: Pearson Education, Inc.
13. What type of muscle tissue are you viewing?
Skeletal muscle tissue.
14. Name the function of this type of muscle tissue.
The functions of skeletal tissue is movement.
15. Name 2 characteristics of the muscle tissue.
Muscle tissue has long fibers and they are multi-nucleic.
16. Nerves are thin, threadlike, white strands found between the muscle and the nearest bone.
Remove a single muscle by cutting the tendons and peeling the muscle away from the bone.
Look for the nerve in your specimen. The texture is much different from a tendon or bone.
It is rather slippery. Did you find one?
Yes.
17.
 |
| Nerve (should be) on the far right side of the bone. |
18. The strong, shiny, white cords of tendons hold the muscle to the bones. Some of these
tendons pull away from the bone as you separated the muscle bundles. Observe with a
magnifying tool, if you have one, describe, and sketch.
a. The attachment of tendon to muscle.
b. The attachment of tendon to bone.
19.
 |
| My sad little drawing. : ) Artist, I am not. |
 |
| Tendon attached to muscle |
20. Cut across the tendons at the elbow and peel back toward the carpal joint as if you were
peeling back a banana. Observe the numerous tendons and pull the freed muscle down and
away from the bone. Don't cut any ligaments that attach bone to bone.
21.
 |
| Ligament |
22. Look closely at the ligaments with a magnifying tool. Describe 2 differences in appearance
between tendons and ligaments.
Ligaments are much stronger and harder than tendons and the attachment to the bone seems much
stronger.
23. What type of connective tissue composes the ligaments?
Ligaments are fibrous connective tissue.
24. Remove all remaining muscle to expose the bones of the chicken leg.
25.
26. Bend the elbow. Refer to pages 113-115 in your textbook and answer these questions.
a. What type of joint is this.
This is a hinge joint.
b. What type of movement is being demonstrated?
The bones can only move one way - open and closed.
27. Cut into the elbow joint and separate the ulna and radius from the metacarpals. Observe
the shiny white layer covering the ends of the bones. Name this covering according to its
primary tissue and specific type.
The covering is a synovial membrane.
28. Describe the texture of the ends of the bones at the joint.
The texture was extremely smooth.
29. Name three functions of bone.
Three functions of bone are for strength, structure and protection.
30. If you could see inside the bone. What soft material would you find? Do not break the raw
chicken bone. There is danger from bone fragments flying out.
You would find bone marrow.
31. Name three specific types of cells present here.
Stem cells, osteoblasts and osteocytes.
32. Explore and examine other parts.
33. Dispose of materials. Using warm water and soap thoroughly wash all tools and materials,
including your hands and the surface you worked upon.
Sunday, February 8, 2015
TISSUES, SKIN, MEMBRANES LAB
PART 1
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue offers protection and creates linings all over the body. Their tightly packed cells are ideal for these functions.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue has fat vacuoles for cushioning and strong matrixes that offer support, storage and strength to organs and other body parts.
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consist of long (for the most part) and thin fibers that are excellent for contracting.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue sends electric impulses to different regions of the body. Their dendrites and long axons are like lighting rods accepting impulses and sending them on their way quickly.
PART 2
Serous Membrane
Mucous Membrane
Synovial Membrane
Cutaneous Membrane
PART 3
1. A friend tells you she has a blister on the inferior surface of her foot. She adds that it is posterior, not anterior. Where is her blister?
Her blister is on the bottom of her foot, towards her heel.
2.
PART 4
Visualizing changes in skin color.
What would happen if in this area the pressure continued for an extended period of time?
Since pressure slows down blood flow, if there was extended pressure the epidermis would eventually die from lack of blood delivery.
Testing tactile locations and adaptation.
Table 1
Palm Fingertip Forearm Back of Hand
45mm 30mm 85mm 60mm
In the tactile location exercise, which area had the smallest error of localization?
For my subject the area of the smallest localization was the fingertip. I think this was because the area was much smaller than the rest of the locations, so it was easier to pinpoint.
Coin experiment:
Do a bit of research to learn if the same receptors being stimulated when the four coins, rather than the one coin is used. What is your conclusion?
The Meisner corpuscles are being stimulated when one quarter is placed on the forearm. When the four quarters are placed on the forearm, the Pacinian corpuscle may be stimulated. However in my experiment that didn't seem possible, since the weight of the four coins was not that great and it would likely require a deeper touch to stimulate the Pacinian.
Appendages of the skin.
The action of UV light.
What kind of sunscreen or sunblock do you use and how frequently?
I use UVA/UVB 30 sunblock everyday. I am pretty light skinned.
What does the production of more melanin tanning mean?
It means that the skin is being exposed to the sun and the keratinocytes in the dermis is creating more melanin to protect it.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue offers protection and creates linings all over the body. Their tightly packed cells are ideal for these functions.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue has fat vacuoles for cushioning and strong matrixes that offer support, storage and strength to organs and other body parts.
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue consist of long (for the most part) and thin fibers that are excellent for contracting.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue sends electric impulses to different regions of the body. Their dendrites and long axons are like lighting rods accepting impulses and sending them on their way quickly.
PART 2
Serous Membrane
Mucous Membrane
Synovial Membrane
Cutaneous Membrane
PART 3
1. A friend tells you she has a blister on the inferior surface of her foot. She adds that it is posterior, not anterior. Where is her blister?
Her blister is on the bottom of her foot, towards her heel.
2.
PART 4
Visualizing changes in skin color.
What would happen if in this area the pressure continued for an extended period of time?
Since pressure slows down blood flow, if there was extended pressure the epidermis would eventually die from lack of blood delivery.
Testing tactile locations and adaptation.
Table 1
Palm Fingertip Forearm Back of Hand
45mm 30mm 85mm 60mm
In the tactile location exercise, which area had the smallest error of localization?
For my subject the area of the smallest localization was the fingertip. I think this was because the area was much smaller than the rest of the locations, so it was easier to pinpoint.
Coin experiment:
Do a bit of research to learn if the same receptors being stimulated when the four coins, rather than the one coin is used. What is your conclusion?
The Meisner corpuscles are being stimulated when one quarter is placed on the forearm. When the four quarters are placed on the forearm, the Pacinian corpuscle may be stimulated. However in my experiment that didn't seem possible, since the weight of the four coins was not that great and it would likely require a deeper touch to stimulate the Pacinian.
Appendages of the skin.
The action of UV light.
What kind of sunscreen or sunblock do you use and how frequently?
I use UVA/UVB 30 sunblock everyday. I am pretty light skinned.
What does the production of more melanin tanning mean?
It means that the skin is being exposed to the sun and the keratinocytes in the dermis is creating more melanin to protect it.
Saturday, January 31, 2015
THE MICROSCOPE, CELLS, AND ORGANELLES LAB
Microscope, Cells, and Organelles Lab
Part 1
Table 1. Microscope magnification.
Lens mag. Ocular mag. Total mag.
a. Scanning 4x 10x =40x
b. Low Power 10x 10x =100x
c. High Power 40x 10x =400x
d. Oil Immersion 100x 10x =1000x
Part 2
Cheek Smear
1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Cell membrane
Onion Root
1. Nucleus
2. Nucleolus
3. Cell membrane
1. How might the thin, flat shape of cheek cells relate to their function?
Cheek cells are thin and flat so they can have many layers that protect the inside of the mouth.
2. What structure separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm?
The nuclear membrane separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
3. What is the function of the nucleoli? Why is this important?
The nucleoli houses the parts to synthesize ribosomes. This is important because ribosomes create
specific proteins for the body.
4. Other than the nucleoplasm and nucleoli, what are three other materials found in the nucleus?
Three other materials found in the nucleus are DNA, RNA and small proteins.
5. When you begin, in what position should the condenser be?
The condenser should be kept in the highest position.
6. What objective should be in place when you start?
The objective should be placed on 4x.
7. Which focusing knob do you first use when you begin looking at a slide?
The focusing knob you first use when looking at a slide is the course adjustment.
8. What do you adjust if you can see two overlapping circles with part of the object in each circle?
You should adjust the oculars if you see two overlapping circles in the view.
9. How do you move the slide on the stage?
To move the slide on the stage use the adjustment knobs that are attached to the clips on the stage.
10. What device can be opened to increase light?
The diaphragm can be opened to increase light to the slide.
11. What is the name of the highest magnifying objective?
The highest magnifying objective is called oil immersion.
12. What materials are used to clean slides?
The materials used to clean slides are soap and water.
13. What materials are used to clean objectives?
The materials used to clean objectives are lens paper and cleaner.
14. Explain the procedure for stowing the microscope.
After cleaning the microscope the procedure for stowing is to center the stage, make sure all parts
tucked in, wrap the cord around the arm or head, then place on the shelf with its matching number.
15. Describe two ways you can decrease light intensity?
Two ways to decrease light intensity is by adjusting the diaphragm and the lamp.
16. Which objective allows you to see the largest area of the object that you are viewing?
The objective that allows the largest area for viewing is the 4x objective.
Part 3
I think that the carrot that is placed in the saltwater will expand, because salt will cross it's barrier membrane and move inside the carrot. I think this will happen because there is not a lot of salt inside the carrot so the salt will move to where a lower concentration exists.
Table 2. Starting and Ending Carrot Measurements.
Start End Start End
Freshwater Carrot 8"L 7 1/2"L 1"W 1 1/8"W
Saltwater Carrot 8"L 7 1/4"L 1"W 7/8"W
Observations:
The string on the saltwater carrot was significantly looser than the string on the freshwater carrot. The string on the fresh water carrot was also somewhat tighter than it was in the beginning of the experiment. The texture of the saltwater carrot was smoother, while the fresh water carrot had some splitting.
The saltwater carrot seemed to have a decrease in cell size.
The saltwater cell seemed to have lost water, while the freshwater cell seemed to have gained water.
The measurements showed that the saltwater carrot decreased in length by 3/4 of an inch and 1/8 of an inch in width, while the freshwater carrot decreased in length by 1/2 inch, but increased in size by 1/8 inch. It seems that the freshwater carrot cell increased in size making the whole carrot swell. The saltwater carrot cell actually decreased, shrinking the width and length of the cell. The carrots actually did the opposite of what I thought they would do in my original predictions!
What is Osmosis?
Osmosis is the movement of substances from high concentration to low concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. Small molecules, small substance, and water can pass through the membrane, however, larger substances and molecule cannot. It largely depends on what the membrane will allow. This is important for the health of cells, because if the membrane allowed everything through its barrier than the cell could rupture or get substances that prevent it from working properly.
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